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<span class="style6">ESMD Course Material : Fundamentals of Lunar and
Systems Engineering for Senior Project Teams, with Application to a
Lunar Excavator</span><br />
<br />
Contact: David Beale, dbeale@eng.auburn.edu</div>
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<div>
<h1 align="left">Chapter 1: Introduction to Lunar
Excavator Design for Senior Project Students<a name="Introduction"></a><o:p></o:p></h1>
<p><strong>David Beale<o:p></o:p></strong></p>
<w:sdt sdtdocpart="t" docparttype="Table of Contents" docpartunique="t" id="209345399">
<h4>Contents<w:sdtpr></w:sdtpr></h4>
<ol>
<li><a href="#Chapter1">Chapter 1: Introduction to Lunar Excavator
Design for Senior Project Students</a><o:p></o:p><ol>
<li><a href="#ComparisonoftheEarthandMoon">Comparison of the Earth and
Moon</a><o:p></o:p></li>
<li><a href="#Excavators">Excavators</a><o:p></o:p></li>
<li><a href="#PastLunarMissions">Past Lunar Missions</a><o:p></o:p></li>
<li><a href="#PresentandFuture">Present and Future</a><o:p></o:p></li>
<li><a href="#TechnologyReadinessLevel">Technology Readiness Level</a><o:p></o:p></li>
<li><a href="#ITAR">ITA<span class="style9">R and EAR</span></a> </li>
</ol>
</li>
</ol>
</w:sdt>
<p>There is much interest in returning to the moon, and living there
on a permanent and sustainable lunar base. However the lunar
environment is quite challenging, even though there are significant
resources available. Perhaps the most valuable resource is the
lunar dirt called regolith, which will need to be excavated from the
lunar surface using machinery specially designed for that purpose,
which we will call a “lunar excavator”. The purpose of this
handbook is to provide the student engineering design team the basic
skills and background to design equipment for the moon.</p>
<p>Designing an excavator for use on the moon will produce an entirely different
excavator than one designed for use on earth. While you have been
taught the skills to analyze and design parts and systems for use on
the earth, that background does not translate to the moon without
some background information to fill in knowledge gaps. The
student designer needs to add a few new tools to the design
toolbox. </p>
<p><o:p> </o:p>It is also more than likely that the students in a senior
projects class are required to spend most of their time exercising
the design process, rather than doing homework and listening to
lectures. However, finding the basic background material for lunar
systems design can be time-consuming. That is the purpose of this
handbook: to provide or introduce that material, or at least tell
you where to find, so that you can spend your time designing rather
than researching. </p>
<p><o:p> </o:p>Chapter by chapter the topics include:</p>
<p>· Chapter 1 is a historical overview of the lunar
missions and the scientific and engineering accomplishments, a review of past and
future missions, and available published resources from space and
previous moon missions.</p>
<p>· Systems Engineering (SE) is the design methodology for multidisciplinary engineering
projects practiced by NASA, DOD and other large engineering
organizations. Chapter 2 covers SE and is meant to
simplify a complex and some say tedious design methodology, while
providing a working knowledge of SE so that it can be applied on
your project. The presentation divides SE into <u>Phases</u>, and
a set of <span class="style7">11 </span><u>SE functions</u> that can be applied in each phase in
a step-by-step manner. Some of the SE functions require <u>SE
tools</u>. Follow the process with your team as presented
in the chapter, and schedule reviews with your NASA sponsor. The cubesat example in Chapter 3
is an example application of the process. Chapter 4 presents some
more examples of use of SE tools, supplementing the material in
Chapter 2. </p>
<p>· Chapter 5 explains the lunar environment and what the
engineering designer needs to know about it, including gravity, the
lunar vacuum, radiation, temperatures and regolith chemistry,
engineering and geotechnical properties. </p>
<p>· Chapter 6 can be thought of as terse version of
junior-level machine component design, but for the moon. It
includes component design and selection for the moon, specifically a
list of standards and design space handbooks, a look at the lunar
rover, mechanical components selection, materials, and power system
components.</p>
<p>· Chapter 7 includes basics of thermal control for lunar
systems, which builds on student coursework in heat transfer to
extend and apply those basic principles, because temperature ranges
can be quite extreme and damaging to equipment if not properly
designed and protected.</p>
<p>· Chapter 8 shows an example of a computer-aided
simulation of an excavator. Modeling using simulation
tools such as FEA, multibody dynamic simulation and control system simulation will be important
tools in some projects, since you cannot test your prototype here on
earth under the same conditions that exist on the moon. </p>
<p><o:p> </o:p>Lastly, even though the intent is to prepare the student in the
essentials necessary to innovate and design a lunar excavator, the
presentation is intentionally devoid of any excavator design
concepts. This is because one noble and required objective of a
senior project course is that you, the student, must experience the design process from the start,
beginning with your own innovative ideas for an excavator design. </p>
<h2><a name="_Toc210052522"></a>
<a name="ComparisonoftheEarthandMoon">Comparison of the Earth
and Moon</a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<p>
<img height="455" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image026.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1049 _x0000_s1050 _x0000_s1051" width="600" /></p>
<p>Figure 1. Earth and Moon Comparison ( (Heiken, Vaniman, & French, 1991)<a name="Comparison"></a></p>
<p>Figure 1, from the Lunar Sourcebook CD (Heiken et al.,
1991), compares the earth and the moon. The moon is 1/80 the mass
of the earth and about ¼ the diameter. The gravity is 1/6 that of
earth. Note the lunar day temperature extremes, almost no
atmosphere when compared to earth, and the time for the moon to
rotate around the earth is 27.322 days (sidereal month).
Temperatures can be extremely high and extremely low.
Chapter 5 discusses the lunar environment in detail.</p>
<h2><a name="_Toc210052523"></a><a name="Excavators">Excavators</a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<p>On earth there is a wide variety of engineering vehicles for both
construction and mining. The Caterpillar website <a href="http://www.cat.com/cda/layout?m=37840&x=7">http://www.cat.com/cda/layout?m=37840&x=7</a> ,
the Komatsu website<a href="http://www.komatsu.com/ce/index.html">http://www.komatsu.com/ce/index.html</a>,
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_vehicles">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_vehicles</a> (not
reviewed) include a wide variety of machinery for construction and
mining. </p>
<p><o:p> </o:p><img alt="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Koparko_ladowarka.JPG" border="0" height="253" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image027.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="338" /></p>
<p>Figure 2. Backhoe Loader<a name="Backhoe"></a></p>
<p><o:p> </o:p><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Blmexcavsm.jpg"><img alt="Image:Blmexcavsm.jpg" border="0" height="228" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image028.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="342" /></a></p>
<p>Figure 3. Excavator (but not a lunar excavator)<a name="Excavator"></a></p>
<p>Construction, mining and unloading/loading equipment will be
needed to build and sustain a lunar base. Envisioned uses include
unloading of cargo from lunar landers, positioning and lifting
loads, transporting loads, preparing the surface for landing pads
and roads and habitats (site preparation), building berms and
trenches, assembling base structures, building slopes, digging and
drilling, transporting and unloading of lunar soil. </p>
<p><o:p> </o:p>The excavator will be built on the earth and
transported to the moon. Therefore the equipment should be light
weight and take up a small volume. It may be able to multitask (e.g. it may also
be used to lift regolith from a pile or prepare a road
surface). Given the harsh lunar environment and the need to
minimize repairs it should also be very reliable. Lubrication,
maintenance and dust-control are important design issues. Earth
construction equipment is based on the internal combustion engine
for power, hydraulic actuators and a human operator in the vehicle
cab to sense and control the system. For the moon these choices are
not as obvious so “trade studies” (a tool of systems engineering,
Chapters 2 and 4) need to be performed to compare and choose the
best choice of power source, tracked versus wheeled propulsion or
other means, actuators, etc.</p>
<p><o:p> </o:p>The harsh lunar environment will most probably
limit the amount of time that astronauts can spend performing
extravehicular activities (EVAs), so they will most probably not be
operating an excavator from an attached cab. So it will most likely be
either teleoperated from earth or the lunar base, or it could be
autonomous. </p>
<p><o:p> </o:p>Studies of lunar mining and excavation can be found in (Aerospacescholars,
2008), (Satish, Radziszewki, & Ouellet), (Geis, 1996), and (Podnieks,
1992).</p>
<h2><a name="_Toc210052524"></a><a name="PastLunarMissions">Past
Lunar Missions</a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<p>In 1962, President John F. Kennedy reaffirmed American’s
commitment to landing a man on the moon before 1970. </p>
<p class="style8">“We choose to go to the moon. We choose to go to the moon in this
decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but
because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and
measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge
is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to
postpone, and one which we intend to win, and the others, too.”</p>
<p>What followed was a period of rapid engineering and scientific
innovative, culminating with the first astronaut landing on the moon in
1969. These were the Apollo Missions, and they have led to much of
our present-day understanding of the moon. The Lunar and Planetary
Institute <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/">http://www.lpi.usra.edu/</a> (LPI,
2008) is a repository of a significant portion of lunar history
information. In particular the lunar mission timeline <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/">http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/</a> shows
all the missions from the 1950’s through planned missions in
2018. Missions are either manned missions, satellites, or robotic
landing missions. The Apollo mission collected about 300 kg of
regolith which was returned to the earth. </p>
<p>
<img alt="Landing Spots" longdesc="Landing Spots" src="imgEE.gif" /></p>
<p>Figure 4. Landing spots on the lunar surface (Heiken et al., 1991)<a name="landingsites"></a></p>
<p><a name="LRV2"></a>Notice from Figure 4 that most of the landing sites have been
near the equator and mid-latitudes. Recently, Lunar Prospector and
Clementine missions have flown over the lunar poles and sensed the
presence of significant amounts of hydrogen in the dark (permanently
shadowed) polar craters, which could be water ice.</p>
<p> <img border="0" height="341" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image034.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="576" /></p>
<p>Figure 5. Photograph of Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) (Heiken et
al., 1991)<a name="LRV"></a></p>
<p>Apollo missions 14-18 used a rover to transport the astronauts
(Figure 5). It was a foldable four-wheeled vehicle, battery
powered and weighing about 700 kg. Astronauts used them for
extended EVAs (Extravehicular activities). Astronaut Harrison
Schmitt of Apollo 17 stated that he and another astronaut drove 7 km
from the landing module at speeds of 10 km per hour on level
ground. “This may not seem fast, but when you hit a bump in 1/6
gravity at this speed, you spend the next 10 m off the ground… it
could climb and descend slopes of 25 degrees…. it proved to be the
reliable, safe and flexible lunar transport vehicle we expected it
to be” (Eckart, 1999). </p>
<h2><a name="_Toc210052525"></a><a name="PresentandFuture">Present
and Future</a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<p>In 2004, President George W. Bush unveiled a new direction and
vision for NASA to "gain a new foothold on the moon and to prepare
for new journeys to the worlds beyond our own." To further that
direction the NASA’s Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD) <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esmd/home/index.html">http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esmd/home/index.html</a> is
dedicated to creating a “constellation of new capabilities,
supporting technologies and foundational research that enables
sustained and affordable human and robotic exploration”. </p>
<p>The LCROSS mission in 2008 will search for water in a polar
crater, by crashing a rocket into the moon and analyzing the debris
plume for water (ice and vapor), hydrocarbons and hydrated
materials. Launched simultaneously, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
(LRO) is a Moon orbiting mission for the purpose of mapping the
surface to characterize future landing sites, and for future use as
a lunar base by seeking sites suitable for in-situ resource
utilization (ISRU).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p>NASA plans on returning to the moon by 2020. <span lang="EN">The
Ares I launch vehicle is being designed to launch the Crew
Exploration Vehicle (CEV) named Orion, which includes the crew
capsule.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3><span lang="EN">1.2.1 Lunar Base Architectures<o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<p>Many lunar base architectures have been proposed, Figure 6 and
7 shows two architecture. In Figure 7 Location 1 is a pit where
regolith has been excavated, and brought by a hauler (2) to a
processing plant (3) where oxygen is extracted from the
regolith. Other parts of the base include a nuclear reactor (4),
habitat and airlocks (5), radio tower (6), dish antenna (7),
radiators (8) and (9), fuel cells (10) and Ga-As photovoltaic solar
cell arrays (11).)<a name="LunarBaseEagle"></a></p>
<p>
<img border="0" height="295" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image035.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="494" /></p>
<p>Figure 6. Concept of a Lunar Base Architecture ((Heiken et
al., 1991)</p>
<p><o:p> </o:p>
<o:p> <a name="lunarbaseburke"></a></o:p> <img alt="http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-build_image?bg=%23FFFFFF&/conf/lbsa./1985/600/0000081.000&db_key=AST&bits=4&res=100&filetype=.gif" border="0" height="312" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image036.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="480" /></p>
<p>Figure 7. Concept for a Lunar Base at a Pole (Burke, 1985)</p>
<p>Because the moon’s axis of spin is only +/-1.6 degrees with
respect to its orbit around the sun, permanently-shadowed “dark”
craters may exist near regions where the Sun never fully sets, as
shown in Figure 8. The combination of a dark cold craters
(perhaps as low as 40 degrees K) with continuous sunlight nearby (on
the mountains) can be put to use for thermodynamic cycle power
generation. Burke (Burke, 1985) in Figure 7 proposed lunar base
with a rotating solar mirror to collect the sunlight, and always
pointing toward the sun. The light from the sun is concentrated to
heat a fluid in a pipe, powering the thermodynamic cycle, with the
heat rejected to a radiator located in a cold crater. Solar cells
controlled to always point near the sun could provide continuous
power.</p>
<p>
<img border="0" height="316" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image038.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="575" /></p>
<p>Figure 8. Polar region, showing dark craters and perpetual light
mountains.<a name="Polarregionsdiagram"></a><o:p></o:p></p>
<p>Locations for the lunar base are now being considered. Figure
9 shows a view of the south pole and the Amundsen Crater at the
center, which is about 100 km diameter. The right side of the
photograph is in sunlight and the left side in shadow. <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Mons</st1:city></st1:place> (i.e.
Mountain) Malapert, adjacent to the Malapert crater and near the
south pole has been suggested as possible site (Schrunk, 2008).</p>
<p>
<img alt="http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-build_image?bg=%23FFFFFF&/conf/lbsa./1985/600/0000080.000&db_key=AST&bits=4&res=100&filetype=.gif" border="0" height="325" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image042.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="324" /></p>
<p>Figure 9. South Pole region (Burke, 1985)</p>
<h3><a name="robotsandvehicles">Lunar Robots and Vehicles</a></h3>
<p>Given the hazards of astronaut exposure to the lunar environment,
many of the tasks needed to build a lunar base will be performed by
robots and robotic vehicles. NASA is currently developing the
technology, including “Robonaut” and a lunar truck named “Chariot”. </p>
<p>
<img alt="http://www.roboteyes.com/Robots/RobonautIsolated.jpg" border="0" height="197" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image017.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="240" /></p>
<p><a name="Figure10">Figure 10.</a> “Robonaut” is a 40 degree-of-freedom human-scale
upper body “humanoid” robot, featuring hand dexterity, stereo vision
cameras for eyes and object perception, and numerous tactile, force
and position sensors.</p>
<p><o:p> </o:p><img alt="centaur" border="0" height="393" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image043.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_16" width="340" /></p>
<p><a name="Figure11">Figure 11.</a> <b>“<a name="Centaur">Centaur</a>” combines a four-wheeled vehicle base
with Robonaut for the purposes of teleoperated or autonomous
operations (such as using tools) on lunar and planetary surfaces. <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p><o:p> </o:p> <o:p> </o:p><img alt="centaurteleoperated" border="0" height="319" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image045.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_18" width="340" /></p>
<p><a name="Figure12">Figure 12.</a> In the teleoperation mode, a seated human operator’s
hands and head motion are copied (with a time delay from
computational overhead) by Robonaut. The operator wears a visor
system that displays the view of stereo vision cameras, and gloves
with numerous position sensors for locating fingers and hands.</p>
<p><o:p> </o:p><img alt="centaurdrilling" border="0" height="275" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image046.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_19" width="334" /></p>
<p>Figure 13. Robonaut in the teleoperated mode, gripping and
positioning a battery-powered electric drill socket over a bolt, and
later tightening the bolt.</p>
<p>
<img alt="centaurboxup" border="0" height="273" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image047.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_17" width="333" /></p>
<p><a name="Figure14">Figure 14.</a> <a name="chariot2"></a>In the autonomous mode, Robonaut uses vision
recognition and force and position control to carefully lift a
fragile box without crushing it.</p>
<p><o:p> </o:p><img alt="http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/217374main_jsc2008e019176.jpg" border="0" height="241" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image048.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_20" width="333" /></p>
<p><a name="Figure15">Figure 15.</a><a name="chariot"></a> The lunar truck or “chariot”,
from <a href="http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/217374main_jsc2008e019176.jpg">http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/217374main_jsc2008e019176.jpg</a>. The
vehicle has 6 wheel sets that can turn 360 degrees, so the vehicle
can be driven sideways for climbing and descending into craters. An
interfacing plate for an excavator can be attached to the front. </p>
<p>
<img alt="interfaceplate" border="0" height="206" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image049.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_24" width="275" /></p>
<p><a name="Figure16">Figure 16.</a> The chariot interfacing plate, for attaching
equipment such as an excavator.</p>
<h2><a name="_Toc210052526"></a><a name="TechnologyReadinessLevel">
Technology Readiness Level</a><a name="TRL"></a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<p>NASA measures the maturity of a technology on a scale from 1 to
10. TRL 1 level projects are considered basic research (most
student excavator projects will start here and stay low TRL
level). TRL 9 means the technology is mission ready (for an
excavator that implies it is ready to send to the moon). </p>
<p>
<img border="0" height="299" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image050.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_10" width="173" /></p>
<p>Figure 17. Technology Readiness Level</p>
<p>
<img border="0" height="539" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image052.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="468" /></p>
<p> <img border="0" height="191" src="SiteImageFiles/Chapter1/image053.gif" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="476" /></p>
<p>Figure 18. Technology Readiness Level Description</p>
<h2><a name="_Toc210052527"></a><a name="ITAR">ITAR and EAR</a>
<a name="ITAR"></a><o:p></o:p></h2>
<p><span lang="EN">US export control laws and regulations are
defined by ITAR and EAR. </span>ITAR is a law entitled
"International Traffic in Arms Regulations" that restricts export of
defense articles, while "Export Administration Regulations" (EAR)
restricts exporting of dual-use technologies. <span lang="EN">
"Export" is defined as the transfer of anything to a foreign person
by any means. ITAR specifically regulates </span>
<font FACE="Times New Roman" SIZE="7"><span class="style11">
information required for the design, development, production,
manufacture, assembly, operation, repair, testing, maintenance or
modification of defense articles. This includes information in
the form of blueprints, drawings, process specifications,
photographs, plans, instructions, and documentation.
NASA projects could be subject to ITAR and EAR. More
information is available at: </span></font></p>
<p>
<a href="http://www.pri-network.org/resource/attach/496/ITAR.pdf">
http://www.pri-network.org/resource/attach/496/ITAR.pdf </a></p>
<h2>
<o:p>References</o:p></h2>
<p>Aerospacescholars. (2008). Mining and Manufacturing on the Moon.
from <a href="http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/6/6.cfm">http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/6/6.cfm</a></p>
<p>Burke, J. D. (1985). <i>Merits of A Lunar Polar Base Location</i>.
Paper presented at the Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st
Century.</p>
<p>Eckart, P. (1999). <i>The Lunar Base Handbook</i>: McGraw-Hill.</p>
<p>Geis, J. (1996). <i>Design Criteria for Lunar Construction
Equipment.</i> Paper presented at the Space 94.</p>
<p>Heiken, G. H., Vaniman, D. T., & French, B. M. (Eds.). (1991). <i>Lunar
Sourcebook A User's Guide to the Moon</i>: Cambridge University
Press</p>
<p>Lunar and Planetary Institute.</p>
<p>LPI. (2008). Lunar and Planetary Institute Website. from <a href="http://www.lpi.usra.edu/">http://www.lpi.usra.edu/</a></p>
<p><span lang="DE">Podnieks, E. R., Siekmeier, J.A. (1992). </span><i>Lunar
Surface Mining Equipment Study.</i> Paper presented at the Space
'92, Denver, Colorado.</p>
<p>Satish, H., Radziszewki, P., & Ouellet, J. A Review of Mining
Technologies For Space.</p>
<p>Schrunk, D., Sharpe, B., Cooper, B., Thangavelu, M. (2008). <i>The
Moon: Resources, Future Development, and Settlement</i> (Second
ed.): Springer-Praxis.</p>
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