diff --git a/resources/lang/en.json b/resources/lang/en.json
index ed980ff7fd..9afee34aac 100644
--- a/resources/lang/en.json
+++ b/resources/lang/en.json
@@ -798,6 +798,8 @@
     "keybinds_hint": "Click a key to rebind it. You can assign a single key or Shift + key combination.",
     "dark_mode_label": "Dark Mode",
     "dark_mode_desc": "Toggle the site’s appearance between light and dark themes",
+    "colorblind_label": "Colorblind Mode",
+    "colorblind_desc": "Use colorblind-friendly territory and border colors",
     "emojis_label": "Emojis",
     "emojis_desc": "Toggle whether emojis are shown in game",
     "alert_frame_label": "Alert Frame",
@@ -930,6 +932,7 @@
     "colored": "Colored",
     "black": "Black",
     "section_structure_icons": "Structure Icons",
+    "section_accessibility": "Accessibility",
     "classic_icons_label": "Classic icons",
     "classic_icons_desc": "Lighter outline with near-black interior",
     "reset_label": "Reset to defaults",
diff --git a/src/client/UserSettingModal.ts b/src/client/UserSettingModal.ts
index b7b821e926..b48938eb1f 100644
--- a/src/client/UserSettingModal.ts
+++ b/src/client/UserSettingModal.ts
@@ -206,6 +206,25 @@ export class UserSettingModal extends BaseModal {
     console.log("🌙 Dark Mode:", this.userSettings.darkMode() ? "ON" : "OFF");
   }
 
+  /** Whether colorblind mode is currently enabled in the graphics overrides. */
+  private colorblindMode(): boolean {
+    return (
+      this.userSettings.graphicsOverrides().accessibility?.colorblind ?? false
+    );
+  }
+
+  /** Flip the colorblind-mode graphics override and persist it. */
+  private toggleColorblindMode() {
+    const overrides = this.userSettings.graphicsOverrides();
+    this.userSettings.setGraphicsOverrides({
+      ...overrides,
+      accessibility: {
+        ...overrides.accessibility,
+        colorblind: !this.colorblindMode(),
+      },
+    });
+  }
+
   private toggleEmojis() {
     this.userSettings.toggleEmojis();
 
@@ -751,6 +770,15 @@ export class UserSettingModal extends BaseModal {
         @change=${this.toggleDarkMode}
       ></setting-toggle>
 
+      <!-- 🎨 Colorblind Mode -->
+      <setting-toggle
+        label="${translateText("user_setting.colorblind_label")}"
+        description="${translateText("user_setting.colorblind_desc")}"
+        id="colorblind-toggle"
+        .checked=${this.colorblindMode()}
+        @change=${this.toggleColorblindMode}
+      ></setting-toggle>
+
       <!-- 😊 Emojis -->
       <setting-toggle
         label="${translateText("user_setting.emojis_label")}"
diff --git a/src/client/hud/layers/GraphicsSettingsModal.ts b/src/client/hud/layers/GraphicsSettingsModal.ts
index cf4cb1e558..4de3f22357 100644
--- a/src/client/hud/layers/GraphicsSettingsModal.ts
+++ b/src/client/hud/layers/GraphicsSettingsModal.ts
@@ -146,6 +146,30 @@ export class GraphicsSettingsModal extends LitElement implements Controller {
     this.patchStructure({ classicIcons: !this.currentClassicIcons() });
   }
 
+  /** Merge a patch into the accessibility graphics overrides and persist it. */
+  private patchAccessibility(
+    patch: Partial<GraphicsOverrides["accessibility"]>,
+  ) {
+    const current = this.userSettings.graphicsOverrides();
+    this.userSettings.setGraphicsOverrides({
+      ...current,
+      accessibility: { ...current.accessibility, ...patch },
+    });
+    this.requestUpdate();
+  }
+
+  /** Whether colorblind mode is currently enabled. */
+  private currentColorblind(): boolean {
+    return (
+      this.userSettings.graphicsOverrides().accessibility?.colorblind ?? false
+    );
+  }
+
+  /** Toggle colorblind-friendly colors. */
+  private onToggleColorblind() {
+    this.patchAccessibility({ colorblind: !this.currentColorblind() });
+  }
+
   private onNameScaleChange(event: Event) {
     const value = parseFloat((event.target as HTMLInputElement).value);
     this.patchName({ nameScaleFactor: value });
@@ -179,6 +203,7 @@ export class GraphicsSettingsModal extends LitElement implements Controller {
     const nameCull = this.currentNameCull();
     const namesColored = !this.currentDarkNames();
     const classicIcons = this.currentClassicIcons();
+    const colorblind = this.currentColorblind();
 
     return html`
       <div
@@ -309,6 +334,31 @@ export class GraphicsSettingsModal extends LitElement implements Controller {
               </div>
             </button>
 
+            <div
+              class="px-3 py-1 text-xs font-semibold text-slate-400 uppercase tracking-wider mt-2"
+            >
+              ${translateText("graphics_setting.section_accessibility")}
+            </div>
+
+            <button
+              class="flex gap-3 items-center w-full text-left p-3 hover:bg-slate-700 rounded-sm text-white transition-colors"
+              @click=${this.onToggleColorblind}
+            >
+              <div class="flex-1">
+                <div class="font-medium">
+                  ${translateText("user_setting.colorblind_label")}
+                </div>
+                <div class="text-sm text-slate-400">
+                  ${translateText("user_setting.colorblind_desc")}
+                </div>
+              </div>
+              <div class="text-sm text-slate-400">
+                ${colorblind
+                  ? translateText("user_setting.on")
+                  : translateText("user_setting.off")}
+              </div>
+            </button>
+
             <div class="border-t border-slate-600 pt-3 mt-4">
               <button
                 class="flex gap-3 items-center w-full text-left p-3 hover:bg-slate-700 rounded-sm text-white transition-colors"
diff --git a/src/client/render/gl/GraphicsOverrides.ts b/src/client/render/gl/GraphicsOverrides.ts
index d5957b54d0..9ac817ece7 100644
--- a/src/client/render/gl/GraphicsOverrides.ts
+++ b/src/client/render/gl/GraphicsOverrides.ts
@@ -14,6 +14,11 @@ export const GraphicsOverridesSchema = z
         classicIcons: z.boolean(),
       })
       .partial(),
+    accessibility: z
+      .object({
+        colorblind: z.boolean(),
+      })
+      .partial(),
   })
   .partial();
 
diff --git a/src/client/render/gl/RenderOverrides.ts b/src/client/render/gl/RenderOverrides.ts
index 39f3f565f7..603196206c 100644
--- a/src/client/render/gl/RenderOverrides.ts
+++ b/src/client/render/gl/RenderOverrides.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,11 @@ import type { RenderSettings } from "./RenderSettings";
 
 const DARK_AMBIENT = 0.35;
 
+/**
+ * Apply the user's graphics overrides onto a RenderSettings in place: name
+ * scaling, classic/dark structure and name styling, and the colorblind-safe
+ * affiliation/tint palette.
+ */
 export function applyGraphicsOverrides(
   settings: RenderSettings,
   overrides: GraphicsOverrides,
@@ -36,8 +41,36 @@ export function applyGraphicsOverrides(
     settings.name.outlineG = channel;
     settings.name.outlineB = channel;
   }
+  if (overrides.accessibility?.colorblind === true) {
+    // Swap the red/green friend-foe encoding (the most common confusion axis)
+    // for a colorblind-safe blue/orange pairing (Okabe-Ito).
+    // Alt-view affiliation borders: self/ally in the blue family, enemy orange.
+    settings.affiliation.selfR = 0;
+    settings.affiliation.selfG = 0.447;
+    settings.affiliation.selfB = 0.698;
+    settings.affiliation.allyR = 0.337;
+    settings.affiliation.allyG = 0.706;
+    settings.affiliation.allyB = 0.914;
+    settings.affiliation.enemyR = 0.835;
+    settings.affiliation.enemyG = 0.369;
+    settings.affiliation.enemyB = 0;
+    // Normal-view relationship border tints: friendly blue, enemy orange,
+    // applied strongly so the cue doesn't rely on subtle hue.
+    settings.mapOverlay.friendlyTintR = 0;
+    settings.mapOverlay.friendlyTintG = 0.447;
+    settings.mapOverlay.friendlyTintB = 0.698;
+    settings.mapOverlay.embargoTintR = 0.835;
+    settings.mapOverlay.embargoTintG = 0.369;
+    settings.mapOverlay.embargoTintB = 0;
+    // Strong ratio so the friend/foe tint dominates the darkened territory
+    // border — neutral keeps its (darkened) fill hue, ally reads blue, enemy
+    // reads orange.
+    settings.mapOverlay.friendlyTintRatio = 0.85;
+    settings.mapOverlay.embargoTintRatio = 0.85;
+  }
 }
 
+/** Apply dark-mode lighting (ambient + enabled) onto settings when active. */
 export function applyDarkModeOverride(
   settings: RenderSettings,
   isDark: boolean,
diff --git a/src/client/theme/BaseTheme.ts b/src/client/theme/BaseTheme.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..80cac305a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/client/theme/BaseTheme.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,228 @@
+import { Colord, colord, LabaColor } from "colord";
+import { PlayerType, Team } from "../../core/game/Game";
+import { GameMap, TileRef } from "../../core/game/GameMap";
+import { PlayerView } from "../../core/game/GameView";
+import { PseudoRandom } from "../../core/PseudoRandom";
+import { simpleHash } from "../../core/Util";
+import { ColorAllocator } from "./ColorAllocator";
+import { Theme } from "./Theme";
+
+/**
+ * Shared theme machinery. Owns the per-pool color allocators and the
+ * territory/team color dispatch (the greedy allocation), plus the color math
+ * every theme shares. Concrete themes supply only the color *data* by
+ * implementing the abstract hooks (palettes, team-color variations, terrain).
+ * A theme may also override the dispatch methods for fully custom allocation.
+ */
+export abstract class BaseTheme implements Theme {
+  private rand = new PseudoRandom(123);
+  protected humanColorAllocator: ColorAllocator;
+  protected botColorAllocator: ColorAllocator;
+  protected nationColorAllocator: ColorAllocator;
+  private teamPlayerColors = new Map<string, Colord>();
+
+  // Shared "default theme" colors. Override the fields in a subclass to differ.
+  protected background = colord("rgb(60,60,60)");
+  protected falloutColors = [
+    colord("rgb(120,255,71)"),
+    colord("rgb(130,255,85)"),
+    colord("rgb(110,245,65)"),
+    colord("rgb(125,255,75)"),
+    colord("rgb(115,250,68)"),
+  ];
+  protected _spawnHighlightColor = colord("rgb(255,213,79)");
+  protected _spawnHighlightSelfColor = colord("rgb(255,255,255)");
+  protected _spawnHighlightTeamColor = colord("rgb(0,255,0)");
+  protected _spawnHighlightEnemyColor = colord("rgb(255,0,0)");
+
+  constructor() {
+    this.humanColorAllocator = new ColorAllocator(
+      this.humanPalette(),
+      this.fallbackPalette(),
+    );
+    this.botColorAllocator = new ColorAllocator(
+      this.botPalette(),
+      this.botPalette(),
+    );
+    this.nationColorAllocator = new ColorAllocator(
+      this.nationPalette(),
+      this.nationPalette(),
+    );
+  }
+
+  // --- Color data: concrete themes provide these ---
+  /** Color pool for human players. */
+  protected abstract humanPalette(): Colord[];
+  /** Color pool for bot players. */
+  protected abstract botPalette(): Colord[];
+  /** Color pool for nation (FFA AI) players. */
+  protected abstract nationPalette(): Colord[];
+  /** Extra colors used once the human pool is exhausted. */
+  protected abstract fallbackPalette(): Colord[];
+  /** Per-team color variations; index 0 is the team's base color. */
+  protected abstract teamColorVariations(team: Team): Colord[];
+  /** Color for a terrain tile, based on its type and elevation magnitude. */
+  abstract terrainColor(gm: GameMap, tile: TileRef): Colord;
+
+  // --- Allocation dispatch (overridable) ---
+  /** Base color for a team (the first entry of its variations). */
+  teamColor(team: Team): Colord {
+    const rgb = this.teamColorVariations(team)[0].toRgb();
+    return colord({
+      r: Math.round(rgb.r),
+      g: Math.round(rgb.g),
+      b: Math.round(rgb.b),
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Color for a player's territory: a per-player variation when the player is
+   * on a team, otherwise a distinct color allocated from the matching pool
+   * (human / bot / nation).
+   */
+  territoryColor(player: PlayerView): Colord {
+    const team = player.team();
+    if (team !== null) {
+      return this.teamColorForPlayer(team, player.id());
+    }
+    if (player.type() === PlayerType.Human) {
+      return this.humanColorAllocator.assignColor(player.id());
+    }
+    if (player.type() === PlayerType.Bot) {
+      return this.botColorAllocator.assignColor(player.id());
+    }
+    return this.nationColorAllocator.assignColor(player.id());
+  }
+
+  /** Stable per-player variation within a team's color set. */
+  teamColorForPlayer(team: Team, playerId: string): Colord {
+    const cached = this.teamPlayerColors.get(playerId);
+    if (cached !== undefined) {
+      return cached;
+    }
+    const colors = this.teamColorVariations(team);
+    const color = colors[simpleHash(playerId) % colors.length];
+    this.teamPlayerColors.set(playerId, color);
+    return color;
+  }
+
+  // --- Shared color math ---
+  /**
+   * Derive the light/dark color pair used to render a structure icon over a
+   * territory, nudging luminance until the two reach a minimum contrast so the
+   * icon stays legible on any fill.
+   */
+  structureColors(territoryColor: Colord): { light: Colord; dark: Colord } {
+    // Convert territory color to LAB color space. Territory color is rendered in game with alpha = 150/255, use that here.
+    const lightLAB = territoryColor.alpha(150 / 255).toLab();
+    // Get "border color" from territory color & convert to LAB color space
+    const darkLAB = this.borderColor(territoryColor).toLab();
+    // Calculate the contrast of the two provided colors
+    let contrast = this.contrast(lightLAB, darkLAB);
+
+    // Don't want excessive contrast, so incrementally increase contrast within a loop.
+    // Define target values, looping limits, and loop counter
+    const loopLimit = 10; // Switch from darkening border to lightening fill if loopLimit is reached
+    const maxIterations = 50; // maximum number of loops allowed, throw error above this limit
+    const contrastTarget = 0.5;
+    let loopCount = 0;
+
+    // Adjust luminance by 5 in each iteration. This is a balance between speed and not overdoing contrast changes.
+    const luminanceChange = 5;
+
+    while (contrast < contrastTarget) {
+      if (loopCount > maxIterations) {
+        // Prevent runaway loops
+        console.warn(`Infinite loop detected during structure color calculation.
+          Light color: ${colord(lightLAB).toRgbString()},
+          Dark color: ${colord(darkLAB).toRgbString()},
+          Contrast: ${contrast}`);
+        break;
+      } else if (loopCount > loopLimit) {
+        // Increase the light color once the loop limit is reached (probably
+        // because the dark color is already as dark as it can get).
+        lightLAB.l = this.clamp(lightLAB.l + luminanceChange);
+      } else {
+        // Decrease the dark color first to keep the light color as close
+        // to the territory color as possible.
+        darkLAB.l = this.clamp(darkLAB.l - luminanceChange);
+      }
+
+      // re-calculate contrast and increment loop counter
+      contrast = this.contrast(lightLAB, darkLAB);
+      loopCount++;
+    }
+    return { light: colord(lightLAB), dark: colord(darkLAB) };
+  }
+
+  /** Perceptual (CIE76 delta-E) distance between two LAB colors. */
+  private contrast(first: LabaColor, second: LabaColor): number {
+    return colord(first).delta(colord(second));
+  }
+
+  /** Clamp a number into the inclusive [low, high] range (default 0–100). */
+  private clamp(num: number, low: number = 0, high: number = 100): number {
+    return Math.min(Math.max(low, num), high);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Border color for a territory. Don't call directly — use PlayerView.
+   * Themes override this to change how borders relate to the fill.
+   */
+  borderColor(territoryColor: Colord): Colord {
+    return territoryColor.darken(0.125);
+  }
+
+  /** Light/dark border pair used to render a defended (fortified) border. */
+  defendedBorderColors(territoryColor: Colord): {
+    light: Colord;
+    dark: Colord;
+  } {
+    return {
+      light: territoryColor.darken(0.2),
+      dark: territoryColor.darken(0.4),
+    };
+  }
+
+  /** Border color used to highlight the currently focused player. */
+  focusedBorderColor(): Colord {
+    return colord("rgb(230,230,230)");
+  }
+
+  /** Player name text color (darker for humans, gray for AI). */
+  textColor(player: PlayerView): string {
+    return player.type() === PlayerType.Human ? "#000000" : "#4D4D4D";
+  }
+
+  /** Map background color. */
+  backgroundColor(): Colord {
+    return this.background;
+  }
+
+  /** A random color from the fallout palette (for the nuke fallout effect). */
+  falloutColor(): Colord {
+    return this.rand.randElement(this.falloutColors);
+  }
+
+  /** Font stack used for in-map text. */
+  font(): string {
+    return "Overpass, sans-serif";
+  }
+
+  /** Highlight color for a spawnable tile during the spawn phase. */
+  spawnHighlightColor(): Colord {
+    return this._spawnHighlightColor;
+  }
+  /** Spawn highlight color for the local player's own tiles. */
+  spawnHighlightSelfColor(): Colord {
+    return this._spawnHighlightSelfColor;
+  }
+  /** Spawn highlight color for teammates' tiles. */
+  spawnHighlightTeamColor(): Colord {
+    return this._spawnHighlightTeamColor;
+  }
+  /** Spawn highlight color for enemies' tiles. */
+  spawnHighlightEnemyColor(): Colord {
+    return this._spawnHighlightEnemyColor;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/client/theme/ColorAllocator.ts b/src/client/theme/ColorAllocator.ts
index 317b00559a..c5e1df96ee 100644
--- a/src/client/theme/ColorAllocator.ts
+++ b/src/client/theme/ColorAllocator.ts
@@ -1,61 +1,35 @@
-import { colord, Colord, extend } from "colord";
+import { Colord, extend } from "colord";
 import labPlugin from "colord/plugins/lab";
 import lchPlugin from "colord/plugins/lch";
 import Color from "colorjs.io";
-import { ColoredTeams, Team } from "../../core/game/Game";
 import { PseudoRandom } from "../../core/PseudoRandom";
 import { simpleHash } from "../../core/Util";
-import {
-  blueTeamColors,
-  botTeamColors,
-  greenTeamColors,
-  orangeTeamColors,
-  purpleTeamColors,
-  redTeamColors,
-  tealTeamColors,
-  yellowTeamColors,
-} from "./Colors";
 extend([lchPlugin]);
 extend([labPlugin]);
 
+/**
+ * Assigns a stable, visually distinct color to each id from a pool, falling
+ * back to a larger list once the pool is exhausted. Theme-agnostic: it knows
+ * nothing about teams or palettes — a theme supplies the pool and owns any
+ * team-color logic.
+ */
 export class ColorAllocator {
   private availableColors: Colord[];
   private fallbackColors: Colord[];
   private assigned = new Map<string, Colord>();
-  private teamPlayerColors = new Map<string, Colord>();
 
   constructor(colors: Colord[], fallback: Colord[]) {
     this.availableColors = [...colors];
     this.fallbackColors = [...colors, ...fallback];
   }
 
-  private getTeamColorVariations(team: Team): Colord[] {
-    switch (team) {
-      case ColoredTeams.Blue:
-        return blueTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Red:
-        return redTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Teal:
-        return tealTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Purple:
-        return purpleTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Yellow:
-        return yellowTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Orange:
-        return orangeTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Green:
-        return greenTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Bot:
-        return botTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Humans:
-        return blueTeamColors;
-      case ColoredTeams.Nations:
-        return redTeamColors;
-      default:
-        return [this.assignColor(team)];
-    }
-  }
-
+  /**
+   * Return the color assigned to `id`, allocating one on first request. New
+   * colors are chosen to be as visually distinct as possible from those already
+   * handed out (falling back to random selection once the pool is large or
+   * exhausted, for performance). Assignments are stable for the allocator's
+   * lifetime.
+   */
   assignColor(id: string): Colord {
     if (this.assigned.has(id)) {
       return this.assigned.get(id)!;
@@ -76,46 +50,27 @@ export class ColorAllocator {
       selectedIndex = rand.nextInt(0, this.availableColors.length);
     } else {
       const assignedColors = Array.from(this.assigned.values());
-      selectedIndex =
-        selectDistinctColorIndex(this.availableColors, assignedColors) ?? 0;
+      selectedIndex = selectDistinctColorIndex(
+        this.availableColors,
+        assignedColors,
+      );
     }
 
     const color = this.availableColors.splice(selectedIndex, 1)[0];
     this.assigned.set(id, color);
     return color;
   }
-
-  assignTeamColor(team: Team): Colord {
-    const teamColors = this.getTeamColorVariations(team);
-    const rgb = teamColors[0].toRgb();
-    rgb.r = Math.round(rgb.r);
-    rgb.g = Math.round(rgb.g);
-    rgb.b = Math.round(rgb.b);
-    return colord(rgb);
-  }
-
-  assignTeamPlayerColor(team: Team, playerId: string): Colord {
-    if (this.teamPlayerColors.has(playerId)) {
-      return this.teamPlayerColors.get(playerId)!;
-    }
-
-    const teamColors = this.getTeamColorVariations(team);
-    const hashValue = simpleHash(playerId);
-    const colorIndex = hashValue % teamColors.length;
-    const color = teamColors[colorIndex];
-
-    this.teamPlayerColors.set(playerId, color);
-
-    return color;
-  }
 }
 
-// Select a distinct color index from the available colors that
-// is most different from the assigned colors
+/**
+ * Index of the available color that is most perceptually different from the
+ * already-assigned colors (the one whose nearest assigned neighbor is farthest
+ * away, by delta-E 2000). Throws if no colors have been assigned yet.
+ */
 export function selectDistinctColorIndex(
   availableColors: Colord[],
   assignedColors: Colord[],
-): number | null {
+): number {
   if (assignedColors.length === 0) {
     throw new Error("No assigned colors");
   }
@@ -136,16 +91,19 @@ export function selectDistinctColorIndex(
   return maxIndex;
 }
 
+/** Smallest delta-E 2000 distance from `lab1` to any of the assigned colors. */
 function minDeltaE(lab1: Color, assignedLabColors: Color[]) {
   return assignedLabColors.reduce((min, assigned) => {
     return Math.min(min, deltaE2000(lab1, assigned));
   }, Infinity);
 }
 
+/** Perceptual distance between two colors using the CIEDE2000 formula. */
 function deltaE2000(c1: Color, c2: Color): number {
   return c1.deltaE(c2, "2000");
 }
 
+/** Convert a colord color to a colorjs.io LAB color for delta-E math. */
 function toColor(colord: Colord): Color {
   const lab = colord.toLab();
   return new Color("lab", [lab.l, lab.a, lab.b]);
diff --git a/src/client/theme/ColorblindTheme.ts b/src/client/theme/ColorblindTheme.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000..50d6835fbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/client/theme/ColorblindTheme.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,114 @@
+import { Colord, colord } from "colord";
+import { ColoredTeams, Team, TerrainType } from "../../core/game/Game";
+import { GameMap, TileRef } from "../../core/game/GameMap";
+import {
+  botTeamColors,
+  cbBlueTeamColors,
+  cbGreenTeamColors,
+  cbOrangeTeamColors,
+  cbPurpleTeamColors,
+  cbRedTeamColors,
+  cbTealTeamColors,
+  cbYellowTeamColors,
+  colorblindColors,
+} from "./Colors";
+import { PastelTheme } from "./PastelTheme";
+
+/**
+ * Colorblind theme — keeps the light terrain but swaps player and team palettes
+ * for a high-contrast, lightness-varied, colorblind-safe set. Shares all the
+ * allocation logic from BaseTheme via PastelTheme.
+ */
+export class ColorblindTheme extends PastelTheme {
+  /** All player pools share the single CVD-safe, lightness-varied palette. */
+  protected humanPalette(): Colord[] {
+    return colorblindColors;
+  }
+  protected botPalette(): Colord[] {
+    return colorblindColors;
+  }
+  protected nationPalette(): Colord[] {
+    return colorblindColors;
+  }
+
+  /** Colorblind-safe per-team variations (blue/orange-anchored Okabe-Ito). */
+  protected teamColorVariations(team: Team): Colord[] {
+    switch (team) {
+      case ColoredTeams.Blue:
+        return cbBlueTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Red:
+        return cbRedTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Teal:
+        return cbTealTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Purple:
+        return cbPurpleTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Yellow:
+        return cbYellowTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Orange:
+        return cbOrangeTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Green:
+        return cbGreenTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Bot:
+        return botTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Humans:
+        return cbBlueTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Nations:
+        return cbRedTeamColors;
+      default:
+        return [this.humanColorAllocator.assignColor(team)];
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Fill-derived border, darkened *relative* to each fill's own lightness
+   * rather than by a fixed amount. An absolute darken (e.g. .darken(0.3))
+   * pushes already-dark fills to near-black while barely touching light ones,
+   * so borders read inconsistently across nations. Scaling lightness keeps
+   * every border the same proportion darker than its territory — distinct, but
+   * still hued and never collapsing to black. Friend/foe tints are mixed on top
+   * in the border shader.
+   */
+  borderColor(territoryColor: Colord): Colord {
+    const hsl = territoryColor.toHsl();
+    return colord({ ...hsl, l: hsl.l * 0.6 });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * CVD-tuned terrain: separate elevation bands by *lightness* (the cue all
+   * colorblindness types keep) rather than the green→brown→gray hue ramp, which
+   * blurs plains↔hills under red-green CVD. Dark plains → mid hills → bright
+   * mountains. Water/shore are inherited (blue is already CVD-safe).
+   */
+  terrainColor(gm: GameMap, tile: TileRef): Colord {
+    const mag = gm.magnitude(tile);
+    if (gm.isShore(tile)) {
+      return this.shore;
+    }
+    const type = gm.terrainType(tile);
+    switch (type) {
+      case TerrainType.Ocean:
+      case TerrainType.Lake: {
+        const w = this.water.rgba;
+        if (gm.isShoreline(tile) && gm.isWater(tile)) {
+          return this.shorelineWater;
+        }
+        return colord({
+          r: Math.max(w.r - 10 + (11 - Math.min(mag, 10)), 0),
+          g: Math.max(w.g - 10 + (11 - Math.min(mag, 10)), 0),
+          b: Math.max(w.b - 10 + (11 - Math.min(mag, 10)), 0),
+        });
+      }
+      case TerrainType.Plains: // dark green, low lightness
+        return colord({ r: 90, g: 140 - mag, b: 70 });
+      case TerrainType.Highland: // mid ochre, clearly lighter than plains
+        return colord({ r: 165 + 2 * mag, g: 145 + 2 * mag, b: 105 + mag });
+      case TerrainType.Mountain: // near-white, brightest band
+        return colord({ r: 225 + mag / 2, g: 225 + mag / 2, b: 228 + mag / 2 });
+      default: {
+        // Exhaustiveness guard: a new TerrainType is a compile error here.
+        const _exhaustive: never = type;
+        return _exhaustive;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/client/theme/Colors.ts b/src/client/theme/Colors.ts
index 81b45e6228..38fe797e40 100644
--- a/src/client/theme/Colors.ts
+++ b/src/client/theme/Colors.ts
@@ -23,6 +23,41 @@ export const orangeTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(orange);
 export const greenTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(green);
 export const botTeamColors: Colord[] = [botColor];
 
+// High-contrast, lightness-varied palette for colorblind mode. Hue is spread by
+// the golden angle and lightness walks across a wide range so colors differ in
+// brightness (the cue all colorblindness types retain), not just hue. The
+// allocator's greedy max-ΔE pick then keeps neighbors as distinct as possible.
+export const colorblindColors: Colord[] = Array.from({ length: 32 }, (_, i) => {
+  const h = (i * 137.508) % 360;
+  const l = 35 + ((i * 7) % 50); // 35..84, spread across entries
+  const c = 78;
+  return colord({ l, c, h });
+});
+
+// Colorblind-safe team base colors (Okabe-Ito), expanded into per-player
+// variations the same way the pastel teams are.
+export const cbBlueTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(
+  colord("rgb(0,114,178)"),
+);
+export const cbRedTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(
+  colord("rgb(213,94,0)"), // vermillion
+);
+export const cbTealTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(
+  colord("rgb(0,158,115)"), // bluish green
+);
+export const cbPurpleTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(
+  colord("rgb(204,121,167)"), // reddish purple
+);
+export const cbYellowTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(
+  colord("rgb(240,228,66)"),
+);
+export const cbOrangeTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(
+  colord("rgb(230,159,0)"),
+);
+export const cbGreenTeamColors: Colord[] = generateTeamColors(
+  colord("rgb(86,180,233)"), // sky blue (green is hard for CVD)
+);
+
 function generateTeamColors(baseColor: Colord): Colord[] {
   const lch = baseColor.toLch();
   const colorCount = 64;
diff --git a/src/client/theme/PastelTheme.ts b/src/client/theme/PastelTheme.ts
index b11e5d01e9..093f6efe61 100644
--- a/src/client/theme/PastelTheme.ts
+++ b/src/client/theme/PastelTheme.ts
@@ -1,148 +1,91 @@
-import { Colord, colord, LabaColor } from "colord";
-import { PseudoRandom } from "../../core/PseudoRandom";
-import { PlayerType, Team, TerrainType } from "../../core/game/Game";
+import { Colord, colord } from "colord";
+import { ColoredTeams, Team, TerrainType } from "../../core/game/Game";
 import { GameMap, TileRef } from "../../core/game/GameMap";
-import { PlayerView } from "../../core/game/GameView";
-import { ColorAllocator } from "./ColorAllocator";
-import { botColors, fallbackColors, humanColors, nationColors } from "./Colors";
-import { Theme } from "./Theme";
-
-export class PastelTheme implements Theme {
-  private rand = new PseudoRandom(123);
-  private humanColorAllocator = new ColorAllocator(humanColors, fallbackColors);
-  private botColorAllocator = new ColorAllocator(botColors, botColors);
-  private teamColorAllocator = new ColorAllocator(humanColors, fallbackColors);
-  private nationColorAllocator = new ColorAllocator(nationColors, nationColors);
-
-  private background = colord("rgb(60,60,60)");
-  private shore = colord("rgb(204,203,158)");
-  private falloutColors = [
-    colord("rgb(120,255,71)"), // Original color
-    colord("rgb(130,255,85)"), // Slightly lighter
-    colord("rgb(110,245,65)"), // Slightly darker
-    colord("rgb(125,255,75)"), // Warmer tint
-    colord("rgb(115,250,68)"), // Cooler tint
-  ];
-  private water = colord("rgb(70,132,180)");
-  private shorelineWater = colord("rgb(100,143,255)");
-
-  /** Default spawn highlight colors for other players in FFA, yellow */
-  private _spawnHighlightColor = colord("rgb(255,213,79)");
-  /** Added non-default spawn highlight colors for self, full white */
-  private _spawnHighlightSelfColor = colord("rgb(255,255,255)");
-  /** Added non-default spawn highlight colors for teammates, green */
-  private _spawnHighlightTeamColor = colord("rgb(0,255,0)");
-  /** Added non-default spawn highlight colors for enemies, red */
-  private _spawnHighlightEnemyColor = colord("rgb(255,0,0)");
-
-  teamColor(team: Team): Colord {
-    return this.teamColorAllocator.assignTeamColor(team);
-  }
-
-  territoryColor(player: PlayerView): Colord {
-    const team = player.team();
-    if (team !== null) {
-      return this.teamColorAllocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(team, player.id());
+import { BaseTheme } from "./BaseTheme";
+import {
+  blueTeamColors,
+  botColors,
+  botTeamColors,
+  fallbackColors,
+  greenTeamColors,
+  humanColors,
+  nationColors,
+  orangeTeamColors,
+  purpleTeamColors,
+  redTeamColors,
+  tealTeamColors,
+  yellowTeamColors,
+} from "./Colors";
+
+/**
+ * Default light theme — soft pastel player palettes and a naturalistic
+ * (green → tan → white) terrain ramp. Other themes extend it to reuse the
+ * shared terrain/water colors while swapping palettes.
+ */
+export class PastelTheme extends BaseTheme {
+  protected shore = colord("rgb(204,203,158)");
+  protected water = colord("rgb(70,132,180)");
+  protected shorelineWater = colord("rgb(100,143,255)");
+
+  protected humanPalette(): Colord[] {
+    return humanColors;
+  }
+  protected botPalette(): Colord[] {
+    return botColors;
+  }
+  protected nationPalette(): Colord[] {
+    return nationColors;
+  }
+  protected fallbackPalette(): Colord[] {
+    return fallbackColors;
+  }
+
+  protected teamColorVariations(team: Team): Colord[] {
+    switch (team) {
+      case ColoredTeams.Blue:
+        return blueTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Red:
+        return redTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Teal:
+        return tealTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Purple:
+        return purpleTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Yellow:
+        return yellowTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Orange:
+        return orangeTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Green:
+        return greenTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Bot:
+        return botTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Humans:
+        return blueTeamColors;
+      case ColoredTeams.Nations:
+        return redTeamColors;
+      default:
+        return [this.humanColorAllocator.assignColor(team)];
     }
-    if (player.type() === PlayerType.Human) {
-      return this.humanColorAllocator.assignColor(player.id());
-    }
-    if (player.type() === PlayerType.Bot) {
-      return this.botColorAllocator.assignColor(player.id());
-    }
-    return this.nationColorAllocator.assignColor(player.id());
-  }
-
-  structureColors(territoryColor: Colord): { light: Colord; dark: Colord } {
-    // Convert territory color to LAB color space. Territory color is rendered in game with alpha = 150/255, use that here.
-    const lightLAB = territoryColor.alpha(150 / 255).toLab();
-    // Get "border color" from territory color & convert to LAB color space
-    const darkLAB = this.borderColor(territoryColor).toLab();
-    // Calculate the contrast of the two provided colors
-    let contrast = this.contrast(lightLAB, darkLAB);
-
-    // Don't want excessive contrast, so incrementally increase contrast within a loop.
-    // Define target values, looping limits, and loop counter
-    const loopLimit = 10; // Switch from darkening border to lightening fill if loopLimit is reached
-    const maxIterations = 50; // maximum number of loops allowed, throw error above this limit
-    const contrastTarget = 0.5;
-    let loopCount = 0;
-
-    // Adjust luminance by 5 in each iteration. This is a balance between speed and not overdoing contrast changes.
-    const luminanceChange = 5;
-
-    while (contrast < contrastTarget) {
-      if (loopCount > maxIterations) {
-        // Prevent runaway loops
-        console.warn(`Infinite loop detected during structure color calculation. 
-          Light color: ${colord(lightLAB).toRgbString()}, 
-          Dark color: ${colord(darkLAB).toRgbString()}, 
-          Contrast: ${contrast}`);
-        break;
-
-        // Increase the light color if the "loop limit" has been reach
-        // (probably due to the dark color already being as dark as it can be)
-      } else if (loopCount > loopLimit) {
-        lightLAB.l = this.clamp(lightLAB.l + luminanceChange);
-
-        // Decrease the dark color first to keep the light color as close
-        // to the territory color as possible
-      } else {
-        darkLAB.l = this.clamp(darkLAB.l - luminanceChange);
-      }
-
-      // re-calculate contrast and increment loop counter
-      contrast = this.contrast(lightLAB, darkLAB);
-      loopCount++;
-    }
-    return { light: colord(lightLAB), dark: colord(darkLAB) };
-  }
-
-  private contrast(first: LabaColor, second: LabaColor): number {
-    return colord(first).delta(colord(second));
-  }
-
-  private clamp(num: number, low: number = 0, high: number = 100): number {
-    return Math.min(Math.max(low, num), high);
-  }
-
-  // Don't call directly, use PlayerView
-  borderColor(territoryColor: Colord): Colord {
-    return territoryColor.darken(0.125);
   }
 
-  defendedBorderColors(territoryColor: Colord): {
-    light: Colord;
-    dark: Colord;
-  } {
-    return {
-      light: territoryColor.darken(0.2),
-      dark: territoryColor.darken(0.4),
-    };
-  }
-
-  focusedBorderColor(): Colord {
-    return colord("rgb(230,230,230)");
-  }
-
-  textColor(player: PlayerView): string {
-    return player.type() === PlayerType.Human ? "#000000" : "#4D4D4D";
-  }
-
-  // | Terrain Type      | Magnitude | Base Color Logic                                | Visual Description                                                   |
-  // | :---------------- | :-------- | :---------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------- |
-  // | **Shore (Land)**  | N/A       | Fixed: `rgb(204, 203, 158)`                   | Sandy beige. Overrides other land types if adjacent to water.        |
-  // | **Plains**        | 0 - 9     | `rgb(190, 220, 138)` - `rgb(190, 202, 138)` | Light green. Gets slightly darker/less green as magnitude increases. |
-  // | **Highland**      | 10 - 19   | `rgb(220, 203, 158)` - `rgb(238, 221, 176)` | Tan/Beige. Gets lighter as magnitude increases.                      |
-  // | **Mountain**      | 20 - 30   | `rgb(240, 240, 240)` - `rgb(245, 245, 245)` | Grayscale (White/Grey). Represents snow caps or rocky peaks.         |
-  // | **Water (Shore)** | 0         | Fixed: `rgb(100, 143, 255)`                   | Light blue near land.                                                |
-  // | **Water (Deep)**  | 1 - 10+   | `rgb(70, 132, 180)` - `rgb(61, 123, 171)`   | Darker blue, adjusted slightly by distance to land.                  |
+  /**
+   * Naturalistic terrain ramp by type and elevation magnitude:
+   *
+   * | Terrain Type      | Magnitude | Base Color Logic                                | Visual Description                                                   |
+   * | :---------------- | :-------- | :---------------------------------------------- | :------------------------------------------------------------------- |
+   * | **Shore (Land)**  | N/A       | Fixed: `rgb(204, 203, 158)`                   | Sandy beige. Overrides other land types if adjacent to water.        |
+   * | **Plains**        | 0 - 9     | `rgb(190, 220, 138)` - `rgb(190, 202, 138)` | Light green. Gets slightly darker/less green as magnitude increases. |
+   * | **Highland**      | 10 - 19   | `rgb(220, 203, 158)` - `rgb(238, 221, 176)` | Tan/Beige. Gets lighter as magnitude increases.                      |
+   * | **Mountain**      | 20 - 30   | `rgb(240, 240, 240)` - `rgb(245, 245, 245)` | Grayscale (White/Grey). Represents snow caps or rocky peaks.         |
+   * | **Water (Shore)** | 0         | Fixed: `rgb(100, 143, 255)`                   | Light blue near land.                                                |
+   * | **Water (Deep)**  | 1 - 10+   | `rgb(70, 132, 180)` - `rgb(61, 123, 171)`   | Darker blue, adjusted slightly by distance to land.                  |
+   */
   terrainColor(gm: GameMap, tile: TileRef): Colord {
     const mag = gm.magnitude(tile);
     if (gm.isShore(tile)) {
       return this.shore;
     }
-    switch (gm.terrainType(tile)) {
+    const type = gm.terrainType(tile);
+    switch (type) {
       case TerrainType.Ocean:
       case TerrainType.Lake: {
         const w = this.water.rgba;
@@ -173,34 +116,11 @@ export class PastelTheme implements Theme {
           g: 230 + mag / 2,
           b: 230 + mag / 2,
         });
+      default: {
+        // Exhaustiveness guard: a new TerrainType is a compile error here.
+        const _exhaustive: never = type;
+        return _exhaustive;
+      }
     }
   }
-
-  backgroundColor(): Colord {
-    return this.background;
-  }
-
-  falloutColor(): Colord {
-    return this.rand.randElement(this.falloutColors);
-  }
-
-  font(): string {
-    return "Overpass, sans-serif";
-  }
-
-  spawnHighlightColor(): Colord {
-    return this._spawnHighlightColor;
-  }
-  /** Return spawn highlight color for self */
-  spawnHighlightSelfColor(): Colord {
-    return this._spawnHighlightSelfColor;
-  }
-  /** Return spawn highlight color for teammates */
-  spawnHighlightTeamColor(): Colord {
-    return this._spawnHighlightTeamColor;
-  }
-  /** Return spawn highlight color for enemies */
-  spawnHighlightEnemyColor(): Colord {
-    return this._spawnHighlightEnemyColor;
-  }
 }
diff --git a/src/client/theme/ThemeProvider.ts b/src/client/theme/ThemeProvider.ts
index 307ddde6ab..55aa5f593c 100644
--- a/src/client/theme/ThemeProvider.ts
+++ b/src/client/theme/ThemeProvider.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 import { UserSettings } from "../../core/game/UserSettings";
+import { ColorblindTheme } from "./ColorblindTheme";
 import { PastelTheme } from "./PastelTheme";
 import { PastelThemeDark } from "./PastelThemeDark";
 import { Theme } from "./Theme";
@@ -12,9 +13,13 @@ class ThemeProvider {
   private readonly userSettings = new UserSettings();
   private light = new PastelTheme();
   private dark = new PastelThemeDark();
+  private colorblind = new ColorblindTheme();
 
-  /** The active theme, selected from the user's dark-mode preference. */
+  /** The active theme, from colorblind mode, then the dark-mode preference. */
   current(): Theme {
+    if (this.userSettings.graphicsOverrides().accessibility?.colorblind) {
+      return this.colorblind;
+    }
     return this.userSettings.darkMode() ? this.dark : this.light;
   }
 
@@ -26,6 +31,7 @@ class ThemeProvider {
   reset(): void {
     this.light = new PastelTheme();
     this.dark = new PastelThemeDark();
+    this.colorblind = new ColorblindTheme();
   }
 }
 
diff --git a/tests/Colors.test.ts b/tests/Colors.test.ts
index 1177575f58..627c855705 100644
--- a/tests/Colors.test.ts
+++ b/tests/Colors.test.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import {
   ColorAllocator,
   selectDistinctColorIndex,
 } from "../src/client/theme/ColorAllocator";
+import { ColorblindTheme } from "../src/client/theme/ColorblindTheme";
 import {
   blue,
   botColor,
@@ -13,6 +14,7 @@ import {
   teal,
   yellow,
 } from "../src/client/theme/Colors";
+import { PastelTheme } from "../src/client/theme/PastelTheme";
 import { ColoredTeams } from "../src/core/game/Game";
 
 const mockColors: Colord[] = [
@@ -80,71 +82,58 @@ describe("ColorAllocator", () => {
     expect(c1.isEqual(c1Again)).toBe(true);
     expect(c2.isEqual(c2Again)).toBe(true);
   });
+});
 
-  test("assignTeamColor returns the base color from the team", () => {
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Blue)).toEqual(blue);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Red)).toEqual(red);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Teal)).toEqual(teal);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Purple)).toEqual(purple);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Yellow)).toEqual(yellow);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Orange)).toEqual(orange);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Green)).toEqual(green);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Bot)).toEqual(botColor);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Humans)).toEqual(blue);
-    expect(allocator.assignTeamColor(ColoredTeams.Nations)).toEqual(red);
+describe("PastelTheme team colors", () => {
+  test("teamColor returns the base color from the team", () => {
+    const theme = new PastelTheme();
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Blue)).toEqual(blue);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Red)).toEqual(red);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Teal)).toEqual(teal);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Purple)).toEqual(purple);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Yellow)).toEqual(yellow);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Orange)).toEqual(orange);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Green)).toEqual(green);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Bot)).toEqual(botColor);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Humans)).toEqual(blue);
+    expect(theme.teamColor(ColoredTeams.Nations)).toEqual(red);
   });
 
-  test("assignTeamPlayerColor always returns the same color for the same playerID", () => {
-    const playerId = "player123";
-
-    const blueColor1 = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
-      ColoredTeams.Blue,
-      playerId,
-    );
-    const blueColor2 = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
-      ColoredTeams.Blue,
-      playerId,
-    );
-
-    expect(blueColor1.isEqual(blueColor2)).toBe(true);
-
-    const redColor1 = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
-      ColoredTeams.Red,
-      playerId,
-    );
-    const redColor2 = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
-      ColoredTeams.Red,
-      playerId,
-    );
+  test("teamColorForPlayer is stable for the same playerID", () => {
+    const theme = new PastelTheme();
+    const a = theme.teamColorForPlayer(ColoredTeams.Blue, "player123");
+    const b = theme.teamColorForPlayer(ColoredTeams.Blue, "player123");
+    expect(a.isEqual(b)).toBe(true);
+  });
 
-    expect(redColor1.isEqual(redColor2)).toBe(true);
+  test("teamColorForPlayer differs for different playerIDs", () => {
+    const theme = new PastelTheme();
+    const a = theme.teamColorForPlayer(ColoredTeams.Blue, "player1");
+    const b = theme.teamColorForPlayer(ColoredTeams.Blue, "player2");
+    expect(a.isEqual(b)).toBe(false);
   });
+});
 
-  test("assignTeamPlayerColor returns a different color when the playerID is different", () => {
-    const playerIdOne = "player1";
-    const playerIdTwo = "player2";
+describe("ColorblindTheme", () => {
+  test("applies a palette distinct from PastelTheme", () => {
+    const pastel = new PastelTheme();
+    const colorblind = new ColorblindTheme();
 
-    const blueColorPlayerOne = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
-      ColoredTeams.Blue,
-      playerIdOne,
-    );
-    const blueColorPlayerTwo = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
+    // At least one team's base color should differ — the colorblind theme
+    // swaps the team palettes for CVD-safe (Okabe-Ito) colors.
+    const teams = [
       ColoredTeams.Blue,
-      playerIdTwo,
-    );
-
-    expect(blueColorPlayerOne.isEqual(blueColorPlayerTwo)).toBe(false);
-
-    const redColorPlayerOne = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
-      ColoredTeams.Red,
-      playerIdOne,
-    );
-    const redColorPlayerTwo = allocator.assignTeamPlayerColor(
       ColoredTeams.Red,
-      playerIdTwo,
+      ColoredTeams.Teal,
+      ColoredTeams.Purple,
+      ColoredTeams.Yellow,
+      ColoredTeams.Orange,
+      ColoredTeams.Green,
+    ];
+    const anyDifferent = teams.some(
+      (team) => !pastel.teamColor(team).isEqual(colorblind.teamColor(team)),
     );
-
-    expect(redColorPlayerOne.isEqual(redColorPlayerTwo)).toBe(false);
+    expect(anyDifferent).toBe(true);
   });
 });
 
@@ -158,8 +147,7 @@ describe("selectDistinctColor", () => {
     ];
 
     const result = selectDistinctColorIndex(availableColors, assignedColors);
-    expect(result).not.toBeNull();
-    const rgb = availableColors[result!].toRgb();
+    const rgb = availableColors[result].toRgb();
     expect([
       { r: 0, g: 255, b: 0, a: 1 },
       { r: 0, g: 0, b: 255, a: 1 },